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[[File:IBM System360 Mainframe.jpg|thumb|This is an IBM System/360.]]
A '''computer''' is a [[machine]] that uses [[electronics]] to input, process, store, and output [[data]]. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a [[hard drive]], or a [[sensor]]. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in [[software]] programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a [[computer display|display]], or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a [[computer network|network]] such as the [[internet]], allowing the computers to communicate with each other.

The [[Central processing unit|processor]] of a computer is made from [[integrated circuits]] (chips) that contains many [[transistors]]. Most computers are [[digital]], which means that they represent information using [[binary]] [[digit]]s, or [[bit]]s. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and [[laptop]]s, to large computers, such as [[supercomputer]]s.
== Characteristics ==
Two things that often define a computer are that it responds to a specific [[instruction set]] in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a [[Computer program|program]]. There are four main actions in a computer: [[Input device|inputting]], [[Computer memory|storing]], [[Output device|outputting]] and processing.

Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where [[automation]] is useful. Some examples are controlling [[traffic light]]s, vehicles, security systems, [[washing machine]]s and digital televisions.

Computers can be designed to do almost anything with certain information.  Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Billions of people have a [[personal computer]] at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading, writing, or playing [[games]].
== Hardware ==
Modern computers are electronic [[computer hardware]]. They do mathematical [[arithmetic]] very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The [[software]] uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs.
== Controls ==
Computers are controlled with [[user interface]]s. [[Input device]]s which include [[Keyboard (computer)|keyboards]], [[computer mice]], buttons, and [[touch screen]]s, etc.computer are electronic computer hardware.
== Programs ==
[[Computer program]]s are designed or written by [[computer programmer]]s. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called [[machine code]]. Most programs are written using a [[programming language]] like: [[C (programming language)|C]], [[Fortran]], [[JavaScript]], [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]], and [[Pascal]]. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The [[compiler]] converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.
== History of computers ==
[[File:Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Jacquard loom]] was one of the first programmable devices.]]
== First computer ==
In 1837, [[Charles Babbage]] proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic [[Logic]] Unit, basic flow control, [[punched card]]s, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular program. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to finish a part of this machine and do basic calculations.{{Main|Computer programming}}
Before the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. People began to want to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines", which in simple words means "the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."

One of the first examples of programmable machines was built by [[Hero of Alexandria]] (c. 10–70&nbsp;AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10&nbsp;minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/HeronAlexandria2.htm
| title=Heron of Alexandria
| accessdate=2008-01-15
| archive-date=2013-12-27
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227011050/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/HeronAlexandria2.htm
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>

Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the "castle clock", an [[astronomical clock]] invented by [[Al-Jazari]] in 1206, is the first known [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[analog computer]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Turner| first = Howard R.| title = Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction| url = https://archive.org/details/scienceinmedieva0000turn_z9a9| year = 1997| publisher = University of Texas Press| isbn = 978-0-292-78149-8| page = [https://archive.org/details/scienceinmedieva0000turn_z9a9/page/184 184] }}</ref><ref name="Hill2">Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, pp. 64-9 (compare Donald Routledge Hill, [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225091836/http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |date=2007-12-25 }})</ref> The length of [[day]] and [[night]] could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.<ref name="Ancient Discoveries" /> Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.

Others say the first computer was made by [[Charles Babbage]].<ref name="Ancient Discoveries">{{citation
|title=Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots
|publisher=History Channel
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8
|accessdate=2008-09-06
|archive-date=2014-03-01
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301151115/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8
|url-status=live
}}</ref> [[Ada Lovelace]] is considered to be the first [[programmer]].<ref name="Annals of the History of Computing">{{Harvnb | Fuegi | Francis | 2003 | pp = 16–26}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips|first=Ana Lena
|title=Crowdsourcing gender equity: Ada lovelace day, and its companion website, aims to raise the profile of women in science and technology
|journal=American Scientist
| date =November–December 2011|volume=99|issue=6|page=463|doi=10.1511/2011.93.463
 | issn=0003-0996 }}</ref><ref name="Lovelace Google">{{Citation
| date = Dec 10, 2012
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/dec/10/ada-lovelace-honoured-google-doodle
| title = Ada Lovelace honoured by Google doodle
| newspaper = The Guardian
| accessdate = 10 December 2012
| archive-date = 25 December 2018
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181225024306/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/10/ada-lovelace-honoured-google-doodle
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
== The computing era ==
At the end of the [[Middle Ages]], people started thinking math and [[engineering]] were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical [[calculator]]. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play [[Tetris]]. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.

In 1801, [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] used [[punch card|punched paper cards]] to tell his [[loom|textile loom]] what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing [[technology]] for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.

[[Charles Babbage]] wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine".<ref>Don't confuse the Analytical Engine with Babbage's [[difference engine]] which was a non-programmable mechanical calculator.</ref> Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.

As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. [[Herman Hollerith]] invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became [[IBM]]) made his machines. They [[lease]]d the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.

Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.
== Analog and digital computers ==
In the first half of the [[20th century]], [[scientist]]s started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a [[rocket ship]], they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These [[analog computer]]s used [[analog signal|analog]] circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the [[1930s]], they invented [[digital]] computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.
== High-scale computers ==
Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the [[1930s]] to [[1940s]]. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:

{{Early computer characteristics}}

[[File:EDSAC (10).jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[EDSAC]] was one of the first computers that remembered what you told it even after you turned the power off. This is called ([[von Neumann architecture|von Neumann]]) architecture.]]
* [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Electromechanics|electromechanical]] "Z machines". The [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] (1941) was the first working machine that used [[Binary numeral system|binary]] arithmetic. Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No." to add numbers together. You could also program it. In [[1998]] the Z3 was proved to be [[Turing complete]]. Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer. It is the world's first modern computer.
* The non-programmable [[Atanasoff–Berry Computer]] (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and [[regenerative capacitor memory]].
* The [[Harvard Mark I]] (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program.
* The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory [[ENIAC]] (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose [[Electronics|electronic]] computer (since [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] of 1941 used [[electromagnets]] instead of [[electronics]]). At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it.

Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or [[von Neumann architecture]]. [[John von Neumann]] talked about this design in the paper ''First Draft of a Report on the [[EDVAC]]'', distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in [[Great Britain]]. The first to be demonstrated working was the [[University of Manchester|Manchester]] Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the [[EDSAC]], completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—[[EDVAC]]—was completed but was not ready for two years.

Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main [[concept]] which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.

[[File:80486dx2-large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Microprocessor]]s are miniaturized devices that often implement stored program [[CPU]]s.]]

In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly [[vacuum tube]]s. [[Transistors]] replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on [[integrated circuit]]s. [[Microprocessor]]s, such as the [[Intel 4004]] made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, [[microcontroller]]s became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like [[washing machine]]s. The 1980s also saw [[home computer]]s and [[personal computer]]s. With the evolution of the [[Internet]], personal computers are becoming as common as the [[television]] and the [[telephone]] in the household.

In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "[[multimedia]] computers" and after the launch of the Apple [[iPhone]] in 2007, many are now starting to add the [[smartphone]] category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather [[Nokia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/nokia-was-the-worlds-largest-computer-maker-in-2008/|title=Nokia was the world's largest computer maker in 2008|last=Miller|first=Matthew|website=ZDNet|language=en|access-date=2020-07-18|archive-date=2020-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923075437/https://www.zdnet.com/article/nokia-was-the-worlds-largest-computer-maker-in-2008/|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Kinds of computers ==
There are many types of computers. Some include:
{{Div col}}
# [[Personal computer]]
# [[Workstation]]
# [[Mainframe]]
# [[Minicomputer]]
# [[Supercomputer]]
# [[Embedded system]]
# [[Tablet computer]]
# [[Quantum computer]]
{{Div col end}}

A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "[[Laptop]] computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.

There are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called "mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.

An embedded computer, also called an [[embedded system]] is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an [[alarm clock]] is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some [[mobile phone]]s, [[automatic teller machine]]s, [[microwave oven]]s, [[CD player]]s and [[car]]s are operated by embedded computers.
== All-in-one PC ==
All-in-one computers are [[PC|desktop computers]] that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the [[Computer monitor|monitor]]. [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the [[Macintosh 128K|original Macintosh]] of the mid-1980s and the [[iMac]] of the late 1990s and 2000s.
== Uses of computers ==

== At home ==
* Playing [[computer game]]s
* [[Writing]]
* Solving math problems
* Watching [[video]]s
* Listening to [[music]] and [[audio]]
* Audio, Video and photo editing
* Creating sound or video
* [[Communication|Communicating]] with other people
* Using The Internet
* Online shopping
* Drawing
* Online bill payments
* Online business
== At work ==
* Word processing
* Spreadsheets
* Presentations
* Photo Editing
* E-mail
* Video editing/rendering/encoding
* Audio recording
* System Management
* Website Development
* Software Development
== Working methods ==
Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as [[binary]] [[symbol]]s (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a [[bit]], which comes from the words binary [[Numerical digit|digit]]. Computers can use many bits together to represent [[Instruction (computer science)|instructions]] and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a [[computer program|program]] and is stored on the computer's [[hard disk]]. Computers work through the program by using a [[central processing unit]], and they use fast memory called [[RAM]] (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the [[hard disk]] because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.

An [[operating system]] tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same [[operating system]], while each computer can have its own [[Application programming interface|application programs]] to do what its user needs. Using the same [[operating system]]s makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some [[operating system]]s can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly [[GUI]].
== The Internet ==
One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with [[communication]]. Communication is how people share [[information]]. Computers have helped people move forward in [[science]], [[medicine]], [[business]], and [[learning]], because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The [[Internet]] is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an [[Online game]].
== Computers and waste ==
A computer is now almost always an [[electronic device]]. It usually contains materials that will become [[electronic waste]] when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its [[waste management]] must also be paid for. This is called [[product stewardship]].

Computers can become [[obsolete|obsolete]] quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so [[computer recycling]] happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to [[developing nation]]s so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as [[hard drive]]s, can break easily. When these parts end up in the [[landfill]], they can put [[poison]]ous chemicals like [[lead]] into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like [[credit card]] numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an [[Identity theft|identity thief]] can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it, for example, to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.
== Main hardware ==
Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.
* All computers have a [[CPU]].
* All computers have some kind of [[data bus]] which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment.
* All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips ([[integrated circuit]]s) which can hold information.
* Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment.
* Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other [[peripheral equipment|peripheral devices]] connected.

A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a [[human body]], the [[CPU]] is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the [[Motherboard]], which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the [[nerves]] that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides [[electricity]] to the entire computer. The various drives ([[compact disc|CD]] drive, [[floppy drive]], and on many newer computers, [[USB flash drive]]) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The [[hard drive]] is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a [[sound card]] or another method of making sound, which is like [[vocal cords]], or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are [[computer speaker|speakers]], which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a [[graphics card]], which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as [[3D]] environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.
== Largest computer companies ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! | Company name
! | Sales<br />(US $ billion)
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]
| 220,000
|-
| {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Samsung]]
| 212,680
|-
| {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Foxconn]]
| 132,070
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Hewlett-Packard|HP (Hewlett-Packard)]]
| 112,300
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[IBM]]
| 99,750
|-
| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Hitachi]]
| 87,510
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Microsoft]]
| 86,830
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Amazon.com|Amazon]]
| 74,450
|-
| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Sony]]
| 72,340
|-
| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Panasonic]]
| 70,830
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Google]]
| 59,820
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Dell]]
| 56,940
|-
| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Toshiba]]
| 56,200
|-
| {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[LG Corp.|LG]]
| 54,750
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Intel]]
| 52,700
|}

== Computer Media ==
<gallery widths='160px' heights='100%' mode='traditional' caption=''>
File:X-4 with Female Computer - GPN-2000-001932.jpg|A [[human computer]], with microscope and calculator, 1952

File:Os d'Ishango IRSNB.JPG|The [[Ishango bone]], a [[bone tool]] dating back to [[prehistoric Africa]]

File:Abacus 6.png|The Chinese [[suanpan]] ({{lang|zh|算盘}}). The number represented on this [[abacus]] is 6,302,715,408.

File:Antikythera Fragment A (Front).webp|The [[Antikythera mechanism]], dating back to [[ancient Greece]] circa 200–80 BCE, is an early [[analog computing]] device.

File:Sliderule 2005.png|Slide rule, model Aristo 868 Studio, showing the calculation 1.3 x 2 = 2.6. Transparent background

File:Charles Babbage - 1860.jpg|Charles Babbage

File:Aritmómetro_Electromecánico.jpg|Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]].

File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Sir William Thomson]]'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81

File:Z3 Deutsches Museum.JPG|Replica of [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer

File:Konrad Zuse (1992).jpg|[[Konrad Zuse]], inventor of the modern computer

File:Computer Components.webm|Video demonstrating the standard components of a "slimline" computer
</gallery>
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}<!--=== Notes ===
* {{note label|kempf1961|Kempf 1961|a}} {{cite book
| author = Kempf, Kar
| title = Historical Monograph: Electronic Computers Within the Ordnance Corps
| publisher = [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]] ([[United States Army]])
| url = http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/U-S-Ord-61.html
| date = 1961
}}
* {{note label|phillips2000|Phillips 2000|a}} {{cite web
| last = Phillips
| first = Tony
| publisher = American Mathematical Society
| year = 2000
| title = The Antikythera Mechanism I
| url = http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/column/antikytheraI-0400/kyth1.html
| accessdate = 2006-04-05
}}
* {{note label|shannon1940|Shannon 1940|a}} {{cite thesis
| author = Shannon, Claude Elwood
| title = A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits
| publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| url = http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/11173
| date = 1940
| hdl = 1721.1/11173
| type = Thesis
}}
* {{note label|verma1988|Verma 1988|a}} {{cite book|doi=10.1109/RELPHY.1988.23444
|chapter=Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories
|title=26th Annual Proceedings Reliability Physics Symposium 1988
|year=1988
|last1=Verma
|first1=G.
|last2=Mielke
|first2=N.
|pages=158–166
|s2cid=195840325
}}
* {{note label|top5002006|TOP500 2006|a}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.top500.org/lists/2006/11/overtime/Architectures
| title = Architectures Share Over Time
| accessdate=2006-11-27
| last = Meuer
| first = Hans
| authorlink = Hans Meuer
| others = Strohmaier, Erich; Simon, Horst; Dongarra, Jack
| date = 2006-11-13
| publisher = [[TOP500]]
}}
* {{cite book| last = Stokes| first = Jon| title = Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors and Computer Architecture| url = https://archive.org/details/insidemachineill0000stok| year = 2007| publisher = No Starch Press| location = San Francisco| isbn = 978-1-59327-104-6 }}
-->

[[Category:Computers| ]]
[[Category: Computer science]]