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Muhammadu Buhari

Muhammadu Buhari (born 17 December 1942 – died 13 July 2025) was a Nigerian soldier and politician. He ruled Nigeria as a military leader from 1983 to 1985, and later became the elected president from 2015 to 2023.[2][3][4][5][6][7]

His Excellency
Major General

Muhammadu Buhari

GCFR
Official portrait of Buhari
Official portrait, 2015
7th and 15th President of Nigeria
In office
29 May 2015 – 29 May 2023
Vice PresidentYemi Osinbajo
Preceded byGoodluck Jonathan
Succeeded byBola Tinubu
In office
31 December 1983 – 27 August 1985
as Military Head of State of Nigeria
Chief of StaffTunde Idiagbon
Preceded byShehu Shagari
Succeeded byIbrahim Babangida
Federal Minister of Petroleum Resources
In office
11 November 2015 – 29 May 2023
PresidentHimself
Minister of StateEmmanuel Ibe Kachikwu
Timipre Sylva
Preceded byDiezani Allison-Madueke
Succeeded byBola Tinubu
In office
March 1976 – June 1978
as Federal Commissioner of Petroleum
and Natural Resources
Head of StateOlusegun Obasanjo
Governor of Borno State
In office
3 February 1976 – 15 March 1976
Head of StateMurtala Mohammed
Olusegun Obasanjo
Preceded byOffice established
Succeeded byMustapha Amin
In office
1 August 1975 – 3 February 1976
as Governor of the North-Eastern State
Head of StateMurtala Mohammed
Preceded byMusa Usman
Succeeded byOffice abolished
Personal details
Born(1942-12-17)17 December 1942
Daura, Northern Region, British Nigeria
(now in Katsina, Nigeria)
Died13 July 2025(2025-07-13) (aged 82)
London, England, UK
Political partyAll Progressives Congress (2013–2025)
Other political
affiliations
Spouse(s)
​
​
(m. 1971; div. 1988)​
​
​
(m. 1989)​
Relations
Children10
Alma mater
Occupation
  • Politician
  • military officer
AwardsList of honors and awards
Military service
Nickname(s)Baba or Baba Buhari
Allegiance Nigeria
Branch Nigeria Army
Service years1962–1985
RankMajor general
ConflictsNigerian Civil War
Chadian–Nigerian War

Buhari joined the Nigerian Army and fought in the Nigerian Civil War. He later became important in military governments. During President Shehu Shagari’s time, Buhari became well-known for leading soldiers in the Chadian–Nigerian conflict.

In 1983, Buhari helped with a military takeover that removed Nigeria’s civilian government. Even though he did not lead the coup, he became the head of the military government. At that time, Nigeria was facing serious economic problems and corruption. Buhari said the civilian government was not doing a good job. As leader, he was very strict and focused on fighting corruption, improving the economy, and restoring discipline. His rule was called Buharism. However, his tough style and unpopular economic choices made many people unhappy. On 27 August 1985, another general, Ibrahim Babangida, removed him from power.

Later, Buhari ran for president several times. He lost in 2003, 2007, and 2011. In 2015, he ran again with a party called the All Progressives Congress (APC) and won, defeating President Goodluck Jonathan.[8][9][10][11] It was the first time a sitting Nigerian president lost an election. Buhari became president on 29 May 2015. He was re-elected in 2019, beating former Vice President Atiku Abubakar by more than 3 million votes.[12][13][14]

Early life

Muhammadu Buhari was born on 17 December 1942 in Daura, which is now in Katsina State, Nigeria.[15][16] He was the 23rd child of Mallam Hardo Adamu, a local leader from Dumurkul in Mai’Adua, and Zulaihat, who had Hausa and Kanuri roots.[15][17] He was named after an Islamic scholar from the 9th century, Muhammad al-Bukhari.[18] His great-grandfather, Yusuf, was also a local leader and helped start several villages in Daura, including Dumurkul.[17]

Buhari’s father died when he was only 4 years old. After that, Waziri Alhassan, the son of the Emir (king) of Daura, looked after Buhari, his mother Zulaihat, and her six children.[17][19][20]

As a child, Buhari went to a Qur'anic school, where he also helped take care of cattle. He then went to primary school in Daura and Mai’Adua, finishing in 1953. He later attended Katsina Middle School, which became Katsina Provincial Secondary School, from 1956 to 1961. In his final year, he was both head boy and house captain. In 1960, he received a scholarship from Elder Dempster Lines to visit the United Kingdom for the summer.[17]

Buhari originally wanted to become a doctor, but the only option available then was to study Pharmacology in Zaria, which would take a long time. His nephew, Mamman Daura, suggested that he join the Nigerian Army instead and continue his education through the military.[17]

Military career

In 1962, when he was 19 years old, Buhari was chosen as one of 70 young men to join the Nigerian Military Training College (NMTC).[21][17] In 1964, the NMTC became the Nigerian Defence Academy, which trains army officers. From 1962 to 1963, Buhari trained as an officer cadet at the Mons Officer Cadet School in Aldershot, England.[22]

In January 1963, at age 20, Buhari became a second lieutenant and was made Platoon Commander of the Second Infantry Battalion in Abeokuta, Nigeria. He also attended several military training courses in Nigeria and the UK.[23]

From 1965 to 1967, he led the Second Infantry Battalion and later served as Brigade Major in the First Infantry Division. After a 1966 coup that killed a northern leader, Ahmadu Bello, Buhari took part in a counter-coup in July, which removed General Ironsi and brought General Yakubu Gowon to power.[24]

Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970)

During the civil war, Buhari served in the 1st Division under Lieutenant Colonel Mohammed Shuwa.[25] His unit took part in major battles, starting near Afikpo, then Ogoja, and aimed to reach Enugu.[25] He briefly led his battalion before being moved to Nsukka as Brigade Major.[25]

Later, he was moved to the Awka Sector in 1968, where Nigerian forces were trying to capture Onitsha, an important food supply area for the opposing side (Biafrans). Buhari’s unit faced heavy losses during these operations.[25]

After the War

After the war, Buhari held several military positions:

  • 1970–1971: Commandant of the 31st Infantry Brigade
  • 1971–1972: Assistant Adjutant-General of the 1st Infantry Division
  • 1973: Studied at the Defence Services Staff College in India[26]
  • 1974–1975: Acting Director of Transport and Supply for the Army[25]

In 1975, he helped bring General Murtala Mohammed to power during a coup. Buhari then became Governor of the North-Eastern State until it was split into Bauchi, Borno, and Gongola States.[27][28][29][30][31] He then became the first Governor of Borno State in 1976.[32]

After General Murtala Mohammed was killed in an attempted coup, General Olusegun Obasanjo became head of state. He made Buhari the Federal Commissioner (Minister) for Petroleum and Natural Resources. In 1977, Buhari also became Chairman of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC).[33]

During his time as minister:

  • The government built 21 oil depots across Nigeria
  • New pipelines and refineries were planned and built
  • A major refinery was planned in Kaduna

A controversy came up about $2.8 billion missing from NNPC accounts. General Ibrahim Babangida later accused Buhari, but an official investigation found no evidence against him—although it did find some accounting errors.[34][35][36][37]

Further Military Work and Studies

  • 1978–1979: Buhari was Military Secretary at Army Headquarters and sat on the Supreme Military Council
  • 1979–1980: He studied at the US Army War College in Pennsylvania, earning a Master's in Strategic Studies[38][39][40]

In 1983, when Chadian forces entered Nigeria, Buhari led a military response. He even chased the Chadian soldiers back across the border, against orders from President Shagari.[41]

Top Army Commands Held

  • 4th Infantry Division (Aug 1980 – Jan 1981)
  • 2nd Mechanised Infantry Division (Jan – Oct 1981)[42]
  • 3rd Armoured Division (Oct 1981 – Dec 1983)

1983 Coup d'État

In December 1983, Major-General Buhari helped lead a military coup that removed the civilian government (called the Second Republic). At the time, he was commanding the 3rd Armoured Division in Jos.[43]

After the coup, Tunde Idiagbon became his second-in-command. The army took power, ending the democratic government that had returned just four years earlier.[44]

The military said they acted because:

  • The government was corrupt
  • The economy was getting worse
  • The country needed discipline

Buhari gave a speech on New Year’s Day, blaming politicians for corruption and saying the country’s moral values had fallen.[45]

Head of state (1983–1985)

Consolidation of Power

When Buhari's military government took control, it was Nigeria’s fifth military regime since independence. It created a Supreme Military Council, a Federal Executive Council, and a Council of States, similar to earlier military governments.[45] The number of ministries was reduced to 18, and many high-level government workers and police officers were forced to retire. This included 17 top civil servants.

The government also made new strict laws:[45]

  • The Robbery and Firearms Decree punished armed robbery.
  • The State Security Decree allowed the military to jail people they thought were dangerous to the country or the economy.
  • The Civil Service Decree allowed the government to fire civil servants.

Under Decree Number 2 (1984), people could be detained for up to three months without being charged, if the government saw them as a threat.[46] Strikes and protests were banned. The National Security Organization (NSO) had powerful control and was used to silence critics by threats, jail, or worse.

By October 1984, about 200,000 government workers were dismissed.[47] During Buhari’s 20 months in power, around 500 politicians and businessmen were jailed for corruption.[48][49] Some were released after giving money back or agreeing to certain conditions.

Even critics like musician Fela Kuti were jailed. Fela was arrested in September 1984 and sentenced to five years in prison for allegedly taking money out of Nigeria illegally, though the charges were widely seen as false. He was released after 18 months, when Buhari was removed from power.[50]

The Dikko Affair

Umaru Dikko, a former minister accused of stealing $1 billion, fled to London. Nigerian agents, helped by an alleged Israeli spy, found him, drugged him, and tried to smuggle him back to Nigeria in a crate marked “Diplomatic Baggage” on a Nigerian Airways plane. British airport staff discovered the plot and stopped it.[51]

Suitcase Scandal

In June 1984, 53 mysterious suitcases arrived in Nigeria with the Emir of Gwandu, whose son worked closely with Buhari.[52] The bags were not inspected at customs, causing public suspicion and anger.[53]

Press Crackdown (Decree Number 4)

In 1984, Buhari made Decree Number 4, a law that banned publishing false or embarrassing news about the government.[54][55] Journalists could be fined or jailed for up to 2 years, and military courts had the final say with no appeals allowed.[56]

Economic Policies – "Buharism"

Buhari in uniform

Buhari wanted to fix Nigeria’s economy during a tough time.[57] He:

  • Cut national spending
  • Fought corruption
  • Encouraged people to start their own businesses
  • Promoted using local materials instead of imports[57]

However, import restrictions meant many factories didn’t get the parts they needed. Some closed, and many workers lost their jobs.[45][48]

Buhari rejected help from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), because they asked Nigeria to devalue its currency, the naira.[58][59] Still, his economic changes were just as strict.

In May 1984, Buhari introduced a tough national budget, which included:

  • A ban on hiring new public workers
  • Higher interest rates
  • No new state government loans
  • Cutting imports
  • Giving priority to agriculture and industry

He also introduced:

  • Currency changes
  • Price controls
  • Trade deals with other countries (countertrade)

But these measures caused inflation, food shortages, and public anger.[45]

War Against Indiscipline (WAI)

In March 1984, Buhari launched War Against Indiscipline (WAI) to promote order and good behaviour. Soldiers forced people to:

  • Queue properly at bus stops
  • Arrive on time to work (or face public shaming and exercises like “frog jumps”)[60]
  • Students caught cheating could get 21 years in prison
  • Serious crimes like arson or counterfeiting could lead to the death penalty[61]

More Harsh Decrees

  • Banking Decree (1984): Let the government freeze bank accounts of people suspected of fraud
  • Corruption Decree: Created military courts to try corrupt officials
  • Foreign Exchange Decree: Gave punishments to people who broke currency rules[45]

Another law, Decree 20, allowed the death penalty for crimes like drug trafficking or illegal oil trading.[62]

This law was used retroactively (applied to actions done before the law existed), such as in the case of Bernard Ogedengebe, who was executed even though the law didn’t exist when he committed the offense.[63]

In April 1985, six people were executed under this decree.

Mass Expulsions

In 1985, Buhari reopened Nigeria’s borders to deport 700,000 illegal immigrants, mostly from neighbouring countries. This led to a famine in eastern Niger, and locals called it the "El Buhari" crisis.[64]

Criticism and Legacy

Buhari’s regime was widely criticized for human rights abuses, especially by Wole Soyinka, Nigeria’s Nobel Prize-winning author. Soyinka wrote a piece titled “The Crimes of Buhari” in 2007, criticizing his military rule.

Before the 2015 election, Buhari promised he would respect human rights and follow the law if elected again.[65]

1985 Coup

In August 1985, Buhari was overthrown by Major General Ibrahim Babangida and others from the Supreme Military Council.[66] Babangida brought some of Buhari’s critics into government, like Olikoye Ransome-Kuti, Fela Kuti’s brother. Buhari was jailed in Benin City until 1988.

Pre-presidency (1985–2015)

Detention (1985–1988)

After being removed from power in 1985, Buhari was kept in a small, guarded house in Benin City for three years.[67] He could watch two TV channels, and his family could visit him if they got permission from General Babangida.[68]

Civilian Life

In December 1988, after his mother died, Buhari was released from detention and returned home to Daura. While he was in detention, his relatives looked after his farm. That same year, he divorced his first wife and married Aisha Halilu.[69]

Buhari became the first chairman of the Katsina Foundation, a group that aimed to help social and economic development in Katsina State.[70]

Later, he was made Chairman of the Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF) by General Sani Abacha. The PTF used money from fuel price increases to fund development projects across Nigeria. A report in 1998 praised Buhari’s leadership of the PTF for being honest and effective.[71] However, some people criticized the PTF for giving 20% of its money to the military, which they believed would not use it responsibly.[72]

In 2001, Buhari said he strongly supported the spread of Sharia law in Nigeria.[73][74] He also said he would continue to push for it. However, he denied claims that he had a radical religious agenda.[75] In 2015, he said that people accused him of being extreme because they could not criticize his actual record, and that even when he was military leader, he never forced Sharia law on anyone.[76]

In 2012, Boko Haram (a terrorist group) named Buhari as someone they would trust to talk between them and the government.[77] Buhari refused. In 2013, he said the government's unfair treatment helped cause the group’s rise. He believed the government gave too much money (about $500 million a year) to former Niger Delta militants but used violence against Boko Haram members.[78][79] He said the Niger Delta militants started the trend of militancy in the country.[80]

Presidential Campaigns and Elections

2003 Election

Buhari ran for president with the All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) but lost to the sitting president, Olusegun Obasanjo, by over 11 million votes.[81][82]

2007 Election

In 2006, Buhari was again chosen as the ANPP’s candidate. His main rival, Umaru Yar’Adua of the ruling People’s Democratic Party (PDP), was also from Katsina State. Buhari got only 18% of the vote, and Yar’Adua got 70%. Buhari rejected the results. When Yar’Adua invited other parties to join his government, the ANPP accepted, but Buhari disagreed with their decision.[83]

2011 Election

In 2010, Buhari left the ANPP and helped form a new party, the Congress for Progressive Change (CPC), due to differences in values. He ran again in 2011 against President Goodluck Jonathan (PDP), Nuhu Ribadu (ACN), and Ibrahim Shekarau (ANPP).[84]

Buhari focused on fighting corruption and promised to remove legal immunity from officials. He also supported the use of Sharia law in northern Nigeria, which hurt his popularity in the Christian south.[85]

After the election, violence broke out. About 800 people were killed, especially in central Nigeria, as Buhari’s supporters attacked Christian areas. Some blamed Buhari’s strong words for the violence. Although Human Rights Watch said the election was one of the fairest in Nigeria, Buhari said it was flawed. He warned that if the same thing happened in 2015, "the dog and the baboon would all be soaked in blood"—a statement many took as a threat.[86][87][88]

Still, many people saw Buhari as a hero for speaking out against corruption. He got over 12 million votes, but Jonathan won with over 22 million.[89]

2015 Election

Buhari ran again in 2015 as a candidate of the All Progressives Congress (APC). His campaign focused on fighting corruption. He promised not to investigate past corruption cases if the people involved apologized.[90]

President Jonathan’s team tried to get Buhari disqualified, saying he didn’t prove he had the required school qualifications. Buhari said he lost his documents after his house was raided in 1985.[91][92]

After the Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping in 2014, Buhari strongly condemned Boko Haram and called on all Nigerians to unite to defeat them. He survived a bomb attack by the group in July 2014 that killed 82 people. In December 2014, he promised to improve national security if elected. This helped increase his popularity. In January 2015, a rebel group called MEND endorsed him.[93][94][95][96]

In February, former President Obasanjo left the PDP and also supported Buhari.[97]

On 31 March 2015, President Jonathan called Buhari to congratulate him on winning. Buhari was sworn in as president on 29 May 2015, with over 20 world leaders in attendance.[98][99]

Second Inauguration (2019)

Buhari began his second and final term as president on 29 May 2019, after winning the 2019 election. This was the 6th presidential inauguration in Nigeria's Fourth Republic.[100][101][102]

The swearing-in happened at Eagle Square in Abuja. Chief Justice Tanko Muhammad gave the oath of office to Buhari and Vice President Yemi Osinbajo. Buhari did not give a speech afterward, which was unusual.

Presidency (2015–2023)

Economy

Buhari with Russian President Vladimir Putin, Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro and other leaders at the Third GECF summit in Tehran
  • During Buhari’s time as president, Nigeria’s economy grew very slowly (about 0.9% a year).
  • In 2020, 23% of people were unemployed, and many became poor.[103]
  • Buhari lost some support because people thought he was slow and indecisive.[104][105]
  • Nigeria entered a recession in his first year due to falling oil prices.[106]
  • Buhari travelled to other countries asking for loans to fund big projects.[107]
  • The value of Nigeria’s currency (the Naira) dropped, and some people made illegal profits from the gap between official and black market exchange rates.[108]
  • The government increased fuel prices in 2016.[109][110][111]
  • Economic recovery was slow, and many people remained jobless.
  • The government spent a lot of money on repaying debt.[112][113]

Cabinet and Leadership

  • Buhari’s main advisers included family members and close political allies.[114]
  • He preferred ministers to contact him through his Chief of Staff or Secretary to the Government.[114]
  • Every Nigerian state had to be represented in the cabinet, leading to appointments based more on politics than merit.
  • In 2019, his cabinet was mostly older men, including some with questionable records.[115]

Health

  • Buhari was often sick and spent long periods in the UK for treatment, including a stay of over 100 days in 2017.[116][117][118][119][120][121]
  • His team often gave little information about his condition.
  • During his absences, Vice President Osinbajo acted as president.

Anti-Corruption Efforts

Buhari holding a broom at a campaign rally in 2015.
  • Buhari promised to fight corruption and launched investigations into misuse of money meant for fighting Boko Haram.
  • Several officials, including military officers and politicians, were arrested.[122][123]
  • In 2016, the government introduced a whistle-blower policy to encourage reporting of corruption.[124][125]
  • However, Buhari’s anti-corruption image was damaged when his top anti-corruption officer was arrested for corruption himself in 2020.[126][127][128][129]

Social Welfare

  • Buhari created a national social welfare program in 2016 to help the poor, children, women, and young people.
  • Programs included:
    • N-Power (jobs and training for youth),[130][131]
    • Cash transfers to the poorest families,
    • Small business loans to traders and farmers,
    • School feeding to improve attendance and nutrition.
  • Initially managed by the Vice President’s office, it was later moved to a new ministry in 2019.[132]

Security Challenges

  • Niger Delta: Oil spills ruined farmland. A clean-up project was started but was slow. Rebels attacked oil sites, affecting exports.[133][134][135]
  • Shia Muslims: In 2015, the army clashed with a Shia Muslim group, killing hundreds and jailing their leader, who was held for six years.[136][137]
  • Biafra Separatists: A group called IPOB wanted independence. Their leader, Nnamdi Kanu, was arrested, fled, then re-arrested.[138][139][140]
  • Boko Haram: The group split into factions. The government rescued some kidnapped girls, and one leader killed himself. Many fighters later surrendered.[141][142][143][144][145][146]
  • Herder–Farmer Violence: Clashes in central Nigeria displaced many people. The government tried to create special grazing areas, but it caused protests and was cancelled.[147][148]
  • Banditry: In northern Nigeria, kidnappings and attacks increased. Some bandits were believed to be trained by terrorists.[149][150][151][152][153]

Controversies

COVID-19 Response

  • Buhari set up a task force and ordered lockdowns in major cities in March 2020.[175][176][177]
  • His Chief of Staff died from COVID, but Buhari tested negative.[178]

Foreign Relations

The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Mr. Muhammadu Buhari, during the 3rd India Africa Forum Summit, in New Delhi on October 28, 2015
Buhari with Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, 23 November 2015.
  • Buhari condemned ethnic violence in Myanmar.[179]
  • During a visit to Germany, he made a sexist joke about his wife’s role being in the kitchen.[180][181]
  • He called for a global treaty to end violence against women.[182]

Muhammadu Buhari Media

References

  1. ↑ Paden, John (2016). Muhammadu Buhari: The Challenges of Leadership in Nigeria. Roaring Forties Press. ISBN 978-1-938901-64-5.
  2. ↑ Smith, David (2015-03-31). "Muhammadu Buhari: reformed dictator returns to power in democratic Nigeria" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 . https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/31/muhammadu-buhari-military-dictator-nigeria-new-democratic-president. Retrieved 2025-07-20. 
  3. ↑ "Client Challenge". www.ft.com. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  4. ↑ "Here's how Nigerians remember Buhari, who ruled both as a dictator and a democrat". AP News. 2025-07-13. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  5. ↑ Muhammadu Buhari failed to build a better Nigeria, twice. ISSN 0013-0613 . https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2025/07/14/muhammadu-buhari-failed-to-build-a-better-nigeria-twice. Retrieved 2025-07-20. 
  6. ↑ Bergstresser, Heinrich (2020-09-21), "Nigeria", Africa Yearbook Volume 16, Brill, pp. 147–164, ISBN 978-90-04-43001-3, retrieved 2025-07-20
  7. ↑ "Muhammadu Buhari | Previous Offices, Death, Biography, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2025-07-14. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  8. ↑ vanguard (2016-12-12). "The frustrations of Buhari from 2003 to 2011". Vanguard News. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  9. ↑ "Nigeria election: Muhammadu Buhari wins presidency" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2015-03-31. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32139858. Retrieved 2025-07-20. 
  10. ↑ www.premiumtimesng.com https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/180374-buhari-in-historic-election-win-emerges-nigerias-president-elect.html. Retrieved 2025-07-20. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. ↑ Elqabbany, Moustafa (2018-05-27). "Muhammadu Buhari - The Muslim 500". themuslim500.com. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  12. ↑ Oluwagbemi, Ayodele (2019-02-27). "UPDATED: Buhari wins second term". Punch Newspapers. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  13. ↑ Onuah, Felix; Carsten, Paul (2019-02-28). "Nigeria's Buhari wins re-election, rival pursues fraud claim" (in en-GB). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/world/nigerias-buhari-wins-re-election-rival-pursues-fraud-claim-idUSKCN1QG10I/. Retrieved 2025-07-20. 
  14. ↑ Okere, Alexander (2025-07-13). "UPDATED: Former President Muhammadu Buhari Dies At 82". Channels Television. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Zuber, David (2022-04-19). "Muhammadu Buhari (1942- )". BlackPast.org. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  16. ↑ Smith, David (2015-03-31). "Muhammadu Buhari: reformed dictator returns to power in democratic Nigeria" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 . https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/31/muhammadu-buhari-military-dictator-nigeria-new-democratic-president. Retrieved 2025-07-20. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Paden, John N. (2016). Muhammadu Buhari: The Challenges of Leadership in Nigeria. Huda Huda Publishing Company. ISBN 978-978-951-423-6.
  18. ↑ "Buhari's surname not his father's name; how he dumped it". pmnewsnigeria.com. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  19. ↑ M. G. Smith (1978). The Affairs Of Daura.
  20. ↑ A. H. M. Kirk-Greene S. J. Hogben (1966-01-01). The Emirates of Northern Nigeria: A Preliminary Survey of Their Historical Traditions. Internet Archive. Oxford University Press.
  21. ↑ Obotetukudo, Solomon Williams, ed. (2011). The Inaugural addresses and ascension speeches of nigerian elected and non-elected presidents and prime minister, 1960-2010. Lanham: University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-5274-2.
  22. ↑ "President Muhammadu Buhari – The Statehouse, Abuja". Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  23. ↑ BusinessDay (2015-05-31). "General Muhammadu Buhari: The dawn of a new era". Businessday NG. Retrieved 2025-07-20. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  24. ↑ Meshioye, David (2022-12-18). "Prominent Nigerians who share birthday month with President Buhari". The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Momoh, H. B., ed. (2000). The Nigerian civil war, 1967-1970: History and reminiscences. Ibadan: Bookman. ISBN 978-978-2165-96-1.
  26. ↑ "India can rival China in Nigeria, by being exactly what China is not: Open and free" (in en-US). Quartz. https://qz.com/534257/india-can-rival-china-in-nigeria-by-being-exactly-what-china-is-not-open-and-free/. Retrieved 2025-07-20. 
  27. ↑ Site designed and built by Hydrant (http://www.hydrant.co.uk). "Nigeria : Constitution and politics | The Commonwealth". www.thecommonwealth.org. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  28. ↑ "PRESIDENT MUHAMMADU BUHARI (GCFR) | Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike". www.mouau.edu.ng. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  29. ↑ "Nigeriaroute.com". www.nigeriaroute.com. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  30. ↑ "This is how the 36 states were created | Pulse Nigeria". www.pulse.ng. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  31. ↑ Alapiki, Henry E. (December 2005). "State Creation in Nigeria: Failed Approaches to National Integration and Local Autonomy". African Studies Review. 48 (3): 49–65. doi:10.1353/arw.2006.0003. ISSN 0002-0206.
  32. ↑ "Matthews, Norman Derek, (19 March 1922–21 July 1976), Governor of Montserrat, since 1974", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 2007-12-01, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u157278, ISBN 978-0-19-954089-1, retrieved 2025-07-20
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  34. ↑ "IBB Hits Buhari Harder: Over $2.8Billion Was Stolen By Buhari and Seen In His UK Bank | Brimtime". www.brimtime.com. Retrieved 2025-07-20.
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  165. ↑ (in en) Opinion | For the sake of democracy, Nigeria's #EndSars campaign against police brutality must prevail. 2020-10-14. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/10/13/sake-democracy-nigerias-endsars-campaign-against-police-brutality-must-prevail/. Retrieved 2025-07-21. 
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  172. ↑ "#ENDSARS: Soldiers attack Protesters, Journalists in Abuja" (in en-US). Vanguard News. 2020-10-13. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/10/endsars-soldiers-attack-protesters-journalists-in-abuja/. Retrieved 2025-07-21. 
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