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KS update 1.3
'''Learning''' is getting new things into your [[brain]].
[[File:Cooking contest 140418-N-OX321-101.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|American students learning how to make and roll [[sushi]]]]
'''Learning''' is the way people gain new [[knowledge]], [[skill]]s, [[behavior]]s, or ways of [[thinking]]. It can happen through experience, practice, or being taught by someone else. Inside the body, especially the [[brain]], learning changes how [[Neuron|brain cell]]s connect and work together. At the same time, learning is also affected by a person’s emotions, surroundings, culture, and social life. This means learning is both a brain-based and a life-based experience.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Contemporary Theories of Learning: Learning Theorists In Their Own Words|last=Illeris|first=Knud|date=2018|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-1-138-55049-0|edition=2nd|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Immordino-Yang|first=Mary Helen|last2=Damasio|first2=Antonio|date=2007|title=We Feel, Therefore We Learn: The Relevance of Affective and Social Neuroscience to Education|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2007.00004.x|journal=Mind, Brain, and Education|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=3–10|doi=10.1111/j.1751-228X.2007.00004.x|issn=1751-228X}}</ref> In the brain, learning involves tiny changes in the strength of [[synapse]]s. This is part of a process called [[neuroplasticity]], which means the brain can change and adapt over time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Draganski|first=Bogdan|last2=Gaser|first2=Christian|last3=Busch|first3=Volker|last4=Schuierer|first4=Gerhard|last5=Bogdahn|first5=Ulrich|last6=May|first6=Arne|date=2004|title=Changes in grey matter induced by training|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/427311a|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=427|issue=6972|pages=311–312|doi=10.1038/427311a|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The [[hippocampus]] helps form new [[Memory|memories]], and the [[prefrontal cortex]] helps with [[attention]] and making [[decision]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Squire|first=Larry R.|last2=Dede|first2=Adam J. O.|date=2015-03-01|title=Conscious and Unconscious Memory Systems|url=http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/7/3/a021667|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=a021667|doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a021667|issn=1943-0264|pmc=4355270|pmid=25731765}}</ref> Chemicals in the brain, called [[neurotransmitter]]s, like [[dopamine]] and [[acetylcholine]], help control [[motivation]], [[focus]], and how we respond to [[reward]]s and challenges. These brain parts and chemicals all work together when we learn something new.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schultz|first=Wolfram|date=2016-03-31|title=Dopamine reward prediction error coding|url=https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2016.18.1/wschultz|journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience|volume=18|issue=1|pages=23–32|doi=10.31887/DCNS.2016.18.1/wschultz|pmid=27069377}}</ref>
There are different types of learning. One type is [[classical conditioning]], where someone learns by connecting two things together, like Pavlov’s dogs learning to expect food when they heard a bell.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pavlov|first=P. Ivan|date=2010|title=Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4116985/|journal=Annals of Neurosciences|volume=17|issue=3|pages=136–141|doi=10.5214/ans.0972-7531.1017309|issn=0972-7531|pmc=4116985|pmid=25205891}}</ref> Another is [[operant conditioning]], where behavior changes based on [[reward]]s or [[punishment]]s, like in B.F. Skinner’s experiments.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Science and Human Behavior|last=Skinner|first=B. F.|date=1965|publisher=Free Press|others=B. F. Skinner|isbn=978-0-02-929040-8|location=Riverside}}</ref> [[Observational learning]] happens by watching others, such as in Bandura’s famous Bobo doll study.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=boone|first=tim|last2=reilly|first2=anthony j.|last3=Sashkin|first3=Marshall|date=1977-09-01|title=SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Albert Bandura Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977. 247 pp., paperbound|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/105960117700200317|journal=Group & Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=2|issue=3|pages=384–385|doi=10.1177/105960117700200317|issn=0364-1082}}</ref> There is also [[latent learning]], where someone learns something but does not show it until there is a reason to use it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tolman|first=Edward C.|date=1948|title=Cognitive maps in rats and men.|url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0061626|journal=Psychological Review|language=en|volume=55|issue=4|pages=189–208|doi=10.1037/h0061626|issn=1939-1471}}</ref> Some scientists focus on the mental side of learning, like how we remember, think, or understand things. These ideas come from cognitive theories. [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development|Piaget]] believed that people go through stages as they grow and think in more complex ways.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://content.apa.org/books/11494-000|title=The origins of intelligence in children.|last=Piaget|first=Jean|date=1952|publisher=W W Norton & Co|location=New York|language=en|translator-last=Cook|translator-first=Margaret|doi=10.1037/11494-000}}</ref> Vygotsky said that learning improves when we get help from others, especially when working in our “[[Zone of Proximal Development]]”, tasks we can do with guidance but not alone. This shows that learning often depends on talking, working together, and getting support.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvjf9vz4|title=Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes|last=Vygotsky|first=L. S.|date=1978|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-57628-5|doi=10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4}}</ref>
Many things affect how well someone learns. These include how motivated they are, what they already know, how they feel, and the way information is taught. Some helpful methods include [[spaced repetition]] (reviewing over time) and [[retrieval practice]] (trying to recall information), which are more effective than just rereading notes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dunlosky|first=John|last2=Rawson|first2=Katherine A.|last3=Marsh|first3=Elizabeth J.|last4=Nathan|first4=Mitchell J.|last5=Willingham|first5=Daniel T.|date=2013-01-01|title=Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=14|issue=1|pages=4–58|doi=10.1177/1529100612453266|issn=1529-1006}}</ref> In the past, people thought [[learning styles]], like being a “visual” or “auditory” learner, were very important, but newer studies show that the way material is organized and how challenging it is matters much more than someone’s preferred learning style.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pashler|first=Harold|last2=McDaniel|first2=Mark|last3=Rohrer|first3=Doug|last4=Bjork|first4=Robert|date=2008-12-01|title=Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=9|issue=3|pages=105–119|doi=10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x|issn=1529-1006}}</ref> Learning does not only happen in school. [[Formal learning]] happens in places like schools and universities. [[Informal learning]] happens naturally in everyday life, like when talking to friends or trying a new [[hobby]]. Non-formal learning takes place in settings like workshops or online classes, which are structured but not part of traditional school.<ref>{{Citation|last=Hager|first=Paul J.|title=Informal Learning|date=2012|url=https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_162|work=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning|pages=1557–1559|publisher=Springer, Boston, MA|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_162|isbn=978-1-4419-1428-6|access-date=2025-07-31}}</ref> [[Adult]]s often learn differently from [[children]]. According to Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy, adults prefer learning that is practical, based on their own experiences, and more self-directed.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The adult learner: the definitive classic in adult education and human resource development|last=Knowles|first=Malcolm S.|last2=Holton|first2=Elwood F.|last3=Swanson|first3=Richard A.|date=2020|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-73902-3|edition=8th|location=London}}</ref>
[[Technology]] is also changing how we learn. Tools like [[educational game]]s, smart tutoring programs, and [[app]]s that adjust to your level help make learning more personal and fun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pane|first=John F.|last2=Steiner|first2=Elizabeth D.|last3=Baird|first3=Matthew D.|last4=Hamilton|first4=Laura S.|date=2015-11-10|title=Continued Progress: Promising Evidence on Personalized Learning|url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1365.html|journal=RAND Corporation|language=en|doi=10.7249/rr1365}}</ref> Some programs use ideas from [[neuroscience]], though not all of these are fully proven. Some are based on “neuromyths” or misunderstandings of how the brain works.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howard-Jones|first=Paul A.|date=2014|title=Neuroscience and education: myths and messages|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3817|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|language=en|volume=15|issue=12|pages=817–824|doi=10.1038/nrn3817|issn=1471-0048}}</ref> Also, where and how people grow up affects learning. In group-focused (collectivist) cultures, memorizing facts and respecting teachers might be more common. In more individual-focused cultures, asking questions and thinking critically may be encouraged.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The geography of thought: how Asians and Westerners think differently ... and why|last=Nisbett|first=Richard E.|date=2004|publisher=Free Press|isbn=978-0-7432-5535-6|location=London}}</ref> Finally, learning is not just something [[human]]s do. Many [[animal]]s also learn. For example, [[bee]]s can understand the idea of “same” and “different,” and [[octopus]]es can solve [[puzzle]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Giurfa|first=Martin|date=2021-02-01|title=Learning of sameness/difference relationships by honey bees: performance, strategies and ecological context|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352154620300814|journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences|series=Same-different conceptualization|volume=37|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.05.008|issn=2352-1546|pmc=8772047|pmid=35083374}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richter|first=Jonas N.|last2=Hochner|first2=Binyamin|last3=Kuba|first3=Michael J.|date=2016|title=Pull or Push? Octopuses Solve a Puzzle Problem|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4803207/|journal=PLoS One|volume=11|issue=3|pages=e0152048|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0152048|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4803207|pmid=27003439}}</ref>
== Theoretical foundations ==
== Behaviorist Perspectives ==
[[File:Classical Conditioning.svg|thumb|Classical conditioning procedures and effects]]
[[Behaviorism]] is one of the earliest ways that scientists tried to understand how [[people]] and [[animal]]s learn. It became popular in the early 1900s and focused only on what could be seen, [[behavior]]. Behaviorists believed that learning happens because of things in the [[environment]], not because of thoughts or feelings inside the [[brain]]. According to this idea, if something happens around you, it can cause you to act in a certain way. Over time, you learn to respond to these events based on what happens next, whether something good or bad follows your action.
One of the first scientists to study this was [[Ivan Pavlov]], who worked with [[dog]]s in the 1890s. He discovered something called [[classical conditioning]]. He rang a bell every time he fed the dogs. At first, the dogs only drooled when they saw the food. But after a while, they began to drool just when they heard the bell, even if there was no food. That is because they had learned to connect the bell with the food. This showed that animals (and people) can learn to react to things that used to mean nothing to them, just by forming associations.
Later, a scientist named [[B. F. Skinner]] took behaviorism even further with a different idea called [[operant conditioning]]. He believed that people and animals learn from what happens after they do something. If something good happens, like getting a treat, the behavior is more likely to happen again. If something bad happens, like a punishment, the behavior is less likely to happen. Skinner used special boxes (called “Skinner boxes”) with [[rat]]s and [[pigeon]]s to show how they learned to press [[lever]]s or peck buttons to get food or avoid a shock. He also studied how the timing of rewards could change how strong the behavior was. For example, rewarding behavior every time is different from rewarding it only once in a while.
Behaviorism became a big influence in [[education]] and [[therapy]]. [[Teacher]]s used its ideas to create learning programs where students got rewards for correct answers, and [[therapist]]s used it to help people change problem behaviors. Even today, behaviorism helps in areas like animal training, parenting strategies, and even teaching computers how to learn. But behaviorism is not perfect. Some scientists did not agree with ignoring what goes on inside the brain. For example, people can sometimes learn without any rewards, just by watching others or thinking things through. This is called [[latent learning]] or [[Reason|insight learning]], and behaviorism had trouble explaining it.
== Types ==
There are a number of different types of learning: <ref>Hilgard E.H. & Bower G.D. 1981. ''Theories of learning''. 5th ed, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.</ref>
There are a number of different types of learning: <ref>Hilgard E.H. & Bower G.D. 1981. ''Theories of learning''. 5th ed, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.</ref>
#[[Classical conditioning]]: where two stimuli come together, the organism learns they are related.
#[[Classical conditioning]]: where two stimuli come together, the organism learns they are related.
== Learning Media ==
== Learning Media ==
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File:Children competition on side wheels in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.jpg|Children learn to bike in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.
File:Children competition on side wheels in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.jpg|Children learn to bike in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.