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Yadav

Yadav (literally, descended from Yadu"; also called Ahir or Yaduvanshi), is a caste/clan of the Indian subcontinent that is predominantly found in India, but also in Nepal and Pakistan. The Ahir/Yadavs were traditionally warriorpastoralists.[1] As the name of one of the five Aryan clans mentioned in the Rig Veda as Panchjanya, meaning "five people", it is the common name given to the five most ancient vedic kshatriya tribes. People of the Yadav/Ahir caste generally follow Vaishnav traditions. In the 1881 census records of the British Empire it is stated that "the Yadavas, who in their turn are identified with the Gaolis and Ahirs, were the dominant race at that time.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8] The Yadavs are Kshatriya warriors and a branch of the lunar dynasty that descends from Yayati's oldest son Yadu, and parallels the branch (which includes the Kurus) that descends from Yayati's youngest son Puru.[9]

The Yadavs, mentioned in the Mahabharata, were pastoral kshatriyas among whom Krishna was brought up. The Gopas, whom Krishna had offered to Duryodhana to fight in his support when he himself joined Arjuna's side, were no other than the Yadavs themselves, who were also the Ahirs. In the Mahabharata it is mentioned that when the Yadavas (belonging to the Abhira group) abandoned Dwaraka and Gujarat after the death of Krishna and retreated northwards under Arjuna's leadership, they were attacked and broken up.[10]

Origin and History

Yadavs are the descendants of Yadu, the eldest son of King Yayati. It is said that Yadu was expelled by Yayati from his kingdom and became a rebel. His successor was Madhu, who ruled from Madhuvana, situated on the banks of river Yamuna, which extended up to Saurastra and Anarta (Gujrat). His daughter Madhumati married Harinasva of Ikshvaku race, from whom Yadu was born again, this time being ancestor of Yadavas. Nanda, the foster father of Krishna, was born in the line of succession of Madhu and ruled from the same side of Yamuna. Jarasandh, Kansa's father-in-law, and king of Magadha attacked Yadavas to avenge Kansa's death. Yadavas had to shift their capital from Mathura (central Aryavart) to Dwaraka (on the western coast of Aryavart) on the Sindhu. Yadu was a legendary Hindu king, believed to be an ancestor of the god Krishna, who for this reason is sometimes referred to as Yadava.[11]

The Yadavs of the Mahabharata period were known to be the followers of Vaisnavism, of which Krishna was the leader. They were the gopas (cowherd) by profession, but at the same time they held the status of the Kshatriyas, participating in the battle of Kurukshetra. The present Ahirs are also followers of Vaisnavism. In the Epics and the Puranas the association of the Yadavas with the Abhiras (Ahirs) was attested by the evidence that the Yadava kingdom was " mostly inhabited by the Abhiras (Ahirs)".[12]

In the Indian History particularly with reference to the Vedic period the Yadavs had a great past, a glorious past and Yadavas were known for their bravery and diplomatic wisdom. The Mahabharata period which was the period of Yadavas is known for republican and democratic government.[13]

Ramprasad Chanda, points to the fact that in the Indra is said to have brought Turvasu and Yadu from over the sea, and Yadu and Turvasu are called Barbarian or Dasa. After analyzing the ancient legends and traditions he comes to the conclusion that Yadavas were originally settled in the Kathiawar peninsula and subsequently spread to Mathura.

Of the Yadus, Rigveda provides two very interesting data, first, that they were arajinah - without King or non-monarchical, and second that Indra brought them from beyond the sea and made them worthy of consecration. A. D. Pusalkar observed that Yadvas were called Asuras in the epic and puranas, which may be due to mixing with non-aryans and the looseness in observance of Aryan Dharma. It is important to note that even in the Mahabharata Krishna is called Sanghmukhya - Head of Sangh (congress). Bimanbehari Majumdar points out at one place in the mahabharata Yadavas are called Vratyas and at another place Krishna speaks of his tribe consisting of eighteen thousand vratyas. It is interesting to note that much later,[14]

Abhira of Deccan were called Andhra-Vratyas, and Puranas refer to them as Vratyas on many occasions. A Vratya is one who lives outside the fold of the dominant Aryan Society and practice their own form of austerity and esoteric rites. some scholars conjecture that they might have been the source of non-aryan beliefs and practices introduced into Vedic religion.[15]

Genetically, they are in Indo-Caucasoid family.[16]

Subdivisions

The Yadavs are divided into different subdivisions which have different ritual ranks (Yaduvanshi, Goallavanshi and Nandavanshi). There is nonetheless a strong belief amongst them that all Yadavs belong to.[17]

The Haihayas

Main page: Haihayas

The Haihayas were an ancient confederacy of five ganas (clans), who were believed to have descended from a common ancestor, Yadu. These five clans are Vitihotra, Sharyata, Bhoja, Avanti and Tundikera. The five Haihaya clans called themselves the Talajanghas[18] According to the Puranas, Haihaya was the grandson of Sahasrajit, son of Yadu.[19] Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra mentioned about the Haihayas.[20] In the Puranas, Arjuna Kartavirya conquered Mahishmati from Karkotaka Naga and made it his capital.[21]

Later, the Haihayas were also known by the name of the most dominant clan amongst them — the Vitihotras. According to the Puranas, Vitihotra was the great-grandson of Arjuna Kartavirya and eldest son of Talajangha.[18] Ripunjaya, the last Vitihotra ruler of Ujjayini was overthrown by his amatya (minister) Pulika, who placed his son, Pradyota on the throne.[20][22] The Mahagovindasuttanta of the Dighanikaya mentions about an Avanti king Vessabhu (Vishvabhu) and his capital Mahissati (Mahishmati). Probably he was a Vitihotra ruler.[23]

The Shashabindus

In the Balakanda (70.28) of the Ramayana, the Shashabindus are mentioned along with the Haihayas and the Talajanghas.[24] The Shashabindus or Shashabindavas are believed as the descendants of Shashabindu, a Chakravartin (universal ruler)[25] and son of Chitraratha, great-great-grandson of Kroshtu.[24]

The Chedis

Main page: Chedi Kingdom

The Chedis or Chaidyas were an ancient Yadava clan, whose territory was conquered by a Kuru king Vasu, who thus obtained his epithet, Chaidyoparichara (the overcomer of the Chaidyas)[26] or Uparichara (the overcomer). According to the Puranas, the Chedis were descendants of Chidi, son of Kaishika, grandson of Vidarbha, a descendant of Kroshta. And the son of king Chidi was Maharaja DamGoshi(Father of Shishupal in Mahabharata).And then the lineage was called Hindu Ghosis.

The Vidarbhas

Main page: Vidarbha Kingdom

According to the Puranas, the Vidarbhas or Vaidarbhas were descendants of Vidarbha, son of Jyamagha, a descendant of Kroshtu.[18] Most well known Vidarbha king was Bhishmaka, father of Rukmin and Rukmini.[27] In the Matsya Purana and the Vayu Purana, the Vaidarbhas are described as the inhabitants of Deccan (Dakshinapatha vasinah).[28]

The Satvatas

According to the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII.14), the Satvatas were a southern people held in subjection by the Bhojas.[29] The Satapatha Brahmana (XIII.5.4.21) mentions that Bharata seized the sacrificial horse of the Satvatas.[30] Panini, in his Ashtadhyayi mentions the Satvatas also as being of the Kshatriya gotra, having a sangha (tribal oligarchy) form of government[31] but in the Manusmriti (X.23), the Satvatas are placed in the category of the Vratya Vaishyas.[32]

According to a tradition, found in the Harivamsa (95.5242-8), Satvata was a descendant of the Yadava king Madhu and Satvata's son Bhima was contemporary with Rama. Bhima recovered the city of Mathura from the Ikshvakus after the death of Rama and his brothers. Andhaka, son of Bhima Satvata was contemporary with Kusha, son of Rama. He succeeded his father to the throne of Mathura.[33]

The Andhakas, the Vrishnis, the Kukuras, the Bhojas and the Surasenas are believed to have descended from Satvata,[34] a descendant of Kroshtu.[18] These clans were also known as the Satvata clans.

The Andhakas

According to the Ashtadhyayi (IV.1.114) of Panini, the Andhakas were of the Kshatriya gotra, having a sangha (tribal oligarchy) form of government[31] In the Drona Parva (141.15) of the Mahabharata, Andhakas were categorized as the Vratyas (deviators from orthodoxy).[35] According to the Puranas, the Andhakas were the descendants of Bhajamana, son of Andhaka and grandson of Satvata.[18]

According to the Mahabharata, the allied army of the Andhakas, the Bhojas, the Kukuras and the Vrishnis in the Kurukshetra War was led by Kritavarma, son of Hridika, an Andhaka.[34] But, in the same text, he was also referred as a Bhoja of Mrittikavati.[29]

The Bhojas

See also: Bhojas of Goa

According to the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII.14), the Bhojas were a southern people, whose princes held the Satvatas in subjection. The Vishnu Purana (IV.13.1-61) mentions the Bhojas as a branch of the Satvatas.[29] According to this text, Bhojas of Mrittikavati were descendants of Mahabhoja, son of Satvata.[36] But, according to a number of other Puranic texts, the Bhojas were descendants of Babhru, grandson of Satvata.[18] In the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata (85.3533) and in a passage of the Matsya Purana (34.30) the Bhojas are mentioned as the mlecchas. But another passage of the Matsya Purana (44.69) describes them as pious and the performers of the religious rites.[29]

The Kukuras

Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra (XI.1.5), describes the Kukuras as a clan, having sangha (tribal oligarchy) form of government, whose leader uses the title of rājā (rājaśabdopajīvinah).[37] According to the Bhagavata Purana, the Kukuras occupied the territory around Dwarka. The Vayu Purana mentions that the Yadava ruler Ugrasena belonged to this clan (Kukurodbhava).[38] According to the Puranas, Ahuka, an Kukura, had two sons by a Kashi princess, Ugrasena and Devaka. Ugrasena had nine sons and five daughters, Kamsa being the eldest. Devaka had four sons and seven daughters, Devaki was one of them. Kamsa usurped the throne of Mathura after imprisoning Ugrasena. But later he was killed by Krishna, son of Devaki, who re-installed Ugrasena to the throne.[39]

The Nashik Cave Inscription of Gautami Balashri mentions that her son Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered the Kukuras. The Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I includes the Kukuras in the list of the peoples conquered by him.[38]

The Vrishnis

Main page: Vrishni
 
Images of Samkarshana and Vāsudeva, the two most celebrated Vrishni heroes, on a coin of the Indo-Greek king Agathocles (c. 190–180 BCE)

The Vrishnis are mentioned in a number of Vedic texts, which include the Taittiriya Samhita (III.2.9.3), the Taittiriya Brahmana (III.10.9.15), the Satapatha Brahmana (III.1.1.4) and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (I.6.1).[40] The Taittiriya Samhita and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana mention about a teacher, Gobala belonging to this clan.[41]

Although, Panini, in his Ashtadhyayi (IV.1.114) includes the Vrishnis in the list of the clans of the Kshatriya gotra, having a sangha (tribal oligarchy) form of government,[31] but in the Drona Parva (141.15) of the Mahabharata, the Vrishnis, like the Andhakas were categorized as the Vratyas (deviators from orthodoxy). In the Shanti Parva (81.25) of the Mahabharata, the Kukuras, the Bhojas, the Andhakas and the Vrishnis are together referred as a sangha, and Vasudeva Krishna as Sanghamukhya (seignor of the sangha)[35] According to the Puranas, Vrishni was one of the four sons of Satvata.[18] Vrishni had three (or four) sons, Anamitra (or Sumitra), Yudhajit and Devamidhusha. Shura was son of Devamidhusha. His son Vasudeva was father of Balarama and Krishna.[34]

According to the Harivamsa (II.4.37-41), the Vrishnis worshipped goddess Ekanamsha, who, elsewhere in the same text (II.2.12), described as daughter of Nandagopa.[42] The Mora Well Inscription, found from a village near Mathura and dated to the early decades of the Common era records the installation of the images of the five Vrishni viras (heroes) in a stone shrine by a person, named Tosha. These five Vrishni heroes have been identified with Samkarshana, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba from a passage in the Vayu Purana (97.1-2).[43]

 
A Vrishni silver coin from Alexander Cunningham's Coins of Ancient India: From the Earliest Times Down to the Seventh Century (1891)

A unique silver coin of the Vrishnis was discovered from Hoshiarpur, Punjab. This coin is presently preserved in the British Museum, London.[44] Later, a number of copper coins, clay seals and sealings issued by the Vrishnis were also discovered from Sunet, near Ludhiana.[45]

The Shaineyas

The Shaineyas are believed to have descended from Shini, son of Anamitra, son of Vrishni. In the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the most notable Shaineya was Yuyudhana, son of Satyaka and grandson of Shini. He was a contemporary of Krishna. According to the Puranas, Asanga and Yugandhara were his son and grandson respectively.[34]

Akrura and the Syamantaka

A number of Puranas mention Akrura, a Vrishni, as the ruler of Dvaraka.[46] His name is found in the Nirukta (2.2) as the holder of the jewel.[47] In the Puranas, Akrura is mentioned as the son of Shvaphalka, who was great-grandson of Vrishni[34] and Gandini. In the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana and the Brahma Purana, he was mentioned as the keeper of the Syamantaka, the most well-known jewel of the Yadavas.[47][48] According to the Puranas Akrura had two sons, Devavant and Upadeva.[34]

The fratricidal war and its aftermath

According to the Mausala Parva (7.185-253) of the Mahabharata a few years after the Kurukshetra War, Andhaka-Vrsni Yadava clans of Dvaraka were destroyed due to a fratricidal war.[49] Both Balarama and Krishna died soon after this war. Later, son of Kritavarma became ruler of Mrittikavati and grandson of Yuyudhana became ruler of the territory near the Sarasvati River. The rest of the surviving Yadavas took refuge in Indraprastha. Vajra, great-grandson of Krishna was installed as their king.[50]

Vajra is mentioned as the great-grandson of Krishna in the Vishnu Purana. According to a section of this text (IV.15.34-42), he was the son of Aniruddha and Subhadra.[51] But according or another section (V.32.6-7), he was the son of Aniruddha and Usha, daughter of Bana and granddaughter of Bali.[52] Bahu (or Pratibahu) was his son and Sucharu was his grandson.[51] Elsewhere in this text (V.38.34), he was mentioned as installed as king in Mathura instead of Indraprastha.[53]

The narrative of the Yadava fratricidal war is also found in two Jataka tales of the Pali Buddhist canon: the Ghata Jataka and the Samkicca Jataka. According to the Ghata Jataka, Vasudeva, Baladeva and eight other Andhaka-Venhu (probably, a corrupt form of Andhaka-Venhi, Pali equivalent to Sanskrit Andhaka-Vrishni) brothers seized Dvaravati and killed its king Kamsa. Later, these brothers fought amongst themselves and except Vasudeva and Baladeva everybody died. Vasudeva and Baladeva also died soon after. The Samkicca Jataka mentions that the Andhaka-Venhus killed each other.[54] Kautilya also in his Arthaśāstra (I.6.10) mentioned about the destruction of Vrishni clan because of their foolhardiness.[55]

Yadava kinship system

According to a modern historian, Romila Thapar, the kinship system of the Yadavas shows traces of matrilineal structure, which is found from the mention of their cross-cousin marriages. This is particularly prohibited in the Indo Aryan kinship system.[56] The Vishnu Purana mentions that Krishna married Rukmini, a Vidarbha princess. His son Pradyumna married Kakudvati, daughter of Rukmin, brother of Rukmini. Pradyumna's son Aniruddha married Subhadra, granddaughter of Rukmin.[51]

[57]

Yadav Media

  • A woman of the Ahir community, which falls within the Yadav group, harvesting wheat in western India. Many Yadavs have taken to non-traditional occupations

  • Sadar festival of Yadavs in Hyderabad celebrated during Diwali

References

  1. ↑ Association, American Anthropological (2001). Abstracts of the Annual Meeting. American Anthropological Association. The Ahir/Yadavs were traditionally warriorpastoralists from North Western India.
  2. ↑ Report on the Census of British India taken on the 17th of February 1881: Vols. I-III. 17 February 1881. The Yadavas, who in their turn are identified with the Gaolis and Ahirs, were the dominant race at that time.
  3. ↑ Brahmachary, K. C. (2004). We and Our Administration. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-916-4.
  4. ↑ Viyogi, Naval (2002). Nagas, the Ancient Rulers of India: Their Origin and History. Originals. ISBN 978-81-7536-287-1.
  5. ↑ Dalal, Roshen (18 April 2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-81-8475-277-9.
  6. ↑ Rao, Madan. Brij Bhoomi: Destroying the Daemons. Educreation Publishing.
  7. ↑ Chopra, Pran Nath (1982). Religions and Communities of India. Vision Books. ISBN 978-0-391-02748-0.
  8. ↑ Lal, R. B. (2003). Gujarat. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7991-104-4.
  9. ↑ Hiltebeitel, Alf (30 October 2001). Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma King. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-34054-8. The Yadavas are Ksatriya warriors and a branch of the lunar dynasty that descends from Yayati's oldest son Yadu, and parallels the branch (which includes the Kurus) that descends from Yayati's youngest son Puru.
  10. ↑ Bahadur), Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai (1974). Man in India. A.K. Bose. The Yādavas, mentioned in the Mahabharata, were pastoral kshatriyas among whom Krishna was brought up. The Gopas, whom Krishna had offered to Duryodhana to fight in his support when he himself joined Arjuna's side, were no other than the Yadavas themselves, who were also the Abhiras. In the Epics and the Puranas the association of the Yādavas with the Abhiras was attested by the evidence that the Yådava kingdom was" mostly inhabited by the Abhiras. In the Mahabharata it is mentioned that when the Yadavas (though belonging to the Abhira group) abandoned Dwaraka and Gujarat after the death of Krishna and retreated northwards under Arjuna's leadership, they were attacked and broken up.
  11. ↑ Pargiter, F. E. (1997). Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. ISBN 978-81-208-1487-5.
  12. ↑ Bahadur), Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai (1974). Man in India. A. K. Bose. The Yadavas of the Mahabharata period were known to be the followers of Vaisnavism, of which Krishna was the leader. They were the gopas (cowherd) by profession, but at the same time they held the status of the Kshatriyas, participating in the battle of Kurukshetra. The present Ahirs are also followers of Vaisnavism. In the Epics and the Puranas the association of the Yadavas with the Abhiras was attested by the evidence that the Yadava kingdom was" mostly inhabited by the Abhiras ".
  13. ↑ Price, Pamela; Ruud, Arild Engelsen (26 July 2012). Power and Influence in India: Bosses, Lords and Captains. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-19798-7. In the Indian History particularly with reference to the Vedic Period the Yadavs had a great past, a glorious past and Yadavas were known for their bravery and diplomatic wisdom. The Mahabharata period which was the period of Yadavas is known for republican and democratic government.
  14. ↑ Roy, Janmajit (2002). Theory of Avatāra and Divinity of Chaitanya. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0169-2.
  15. ↑ Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5.
  16. ↑ Ashma, R; Kashyap, V. K (5 November 2002). "Genetic polymorphism at 15 STR loci among three important subpopulation of Bihar, India". Forensic Science International. 130 (1): 58–62. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(02)00346-8. ISSN 0379-0738.
  17. ↑ Heath, Anthony F.; Jeffery, Roger (15 April 2010). Diversity and Change in Modern India: Economic, Social and Political Approaches. OUP/British Academy. ISBN 978-0-19-726451-5.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp.102-4.
  19. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.87.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1972). Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.130-1
  21. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.266
  22. ↑ Raizada, Ajit (1992). Ujjayini (in Hindi), Bhopal: Directorate of Archaeology & Museums, Government of Madhya Pradesh, p.21
  23. ↑ Bhattacharyya, P. K. (1977). Historical Geography of Madhya Pradesh from Early Records. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 118–9. ISBN 978-81-208-3394-4. LCCN 78900527. OCLC 3864981.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Wilson, Horace Hayman (1868). Fitzedward Hall (ed.). The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition. Vol. IV. London: Trübner & Co. pp. 61, 61n.
  25. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.261.
  26. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.118.
  27. ↑ Dowson, John (1984) [1879]. A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology, and Religion, Geography, History. Calcutta: Rupa & Co. p. 54.
  28. ↑ Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1972). Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.83
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Law, B.C. (1973). Tribes in Ancient India, Bhandarkar Oriental Series No.4, Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pp.366-73
  30. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.65.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Thapar, Romila (1978, reprint 1996). Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations, New Delhi: Orient Longman, ISBN 978-81-250-0808-8, pp.303-4
  32. ↑ Buhler, G. (2004). The Laws of Manu. Delhi: Cosmo Publications. p. 279. ISBN 978-81-7755-876-0.
  33. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp.170-1,171fn2
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp.105-107.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1972) Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.127-8
  36. ↑ Wilson, Horace Hayman (tr.) (1840). The Vishnu Purana. London: John Murray. p. 424.
  37. ↑ Rangarajan, L.N. (ed. & tr.) (1992). The Arthashastra, New Delhi: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-044603-6, p.822
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Law, B.C. (1973). Tribes in Ancient India, Bhandarkar Oriental Series No.4, Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, p.389
  39. ↑ Garg, Ganga Ram, ed. (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Vol. I, A–Aj. New Delhi: Concept Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-81-7022-374-0.
  40. ↑ Sircar, D. C. (2008). Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16. ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5.
  41. ↑ Sircar, D. C. (2008). Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 29,29fn4. ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5.
  42. ↑ Bhattacharji, Sukumari (2000). The Indian Theogony: Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva, New Delhi: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-029570-2, p.173
  43. ↑ Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and Eyes : Origin, Meaning and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. New York: Brill. p. 211. ISBN 978-90-04-10758-8.
  44. ↑ Lahiri, Bela (1974). Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa 200 B.C. to 320 A.D.), Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.242-3
  45. ↑ Handa, Devendra (2006). Sculptures from Haryana: Iconography and Style. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study. p. 86. ISBN 978-81-7305-307-8.
  46. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.280.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Sarup, Lakshman (1998) [1920–27]. The Nighantu and the Nirukta:of Sri Yaskacarya The Oldest Indian Treatise on Etymology, Philology And Semantics, Part II. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 23, 23fn1. ISBN 978-81-208-1381-6.
  48. ↑ Dowson, John (1984) [1879]. A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology, and Religion, Geography, History. Calcutta: Rupa & Co. p. 10.
  49. ↑ Sullivan, Bruce M (1999). Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata. Motilal. p. 103. ISBN 9788120816763.
  50. ↑ Pargiter, F.E. (1972) [1922]. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.284.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 Wilson, Horace Hayman (tr.) (1840). The Vishnu Purana. London: John Murray. p. 440.
  52. ↑ Wilson, Horace Hayman (tr.) (1840). The Vishnu Purana. London: John Murray. p. 591.
  53. ↑ Wilson, Horace Hayman (tr.) (1840). The Vishnu Purana. London: John Murray. p. 615.
  54. ↑ Sullivan, Bruce M. (1990). Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa and the Mahābhārata: A New Interpretation. New York: E. J. Brill. pp. 103–4. ISBN 978-90-04-08898-6.
  55. ↑ Rangarajan, L.N. (ed. & tr.) (1992). The Arthashastra, New Delhi: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-044603-6, p.144
  56. ↑ Thapar, Romila (1978, reprint 1996). Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations, New Delhi: Orient Longman, ISBN 978-81-250-0808-8, pp.231,236
  57. ↑ Sircar, D. C. (2008). Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 29, 29fn4. ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5.
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