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List of Pakistani deities

Sculpture of the fire god Pharro (left) and Ardoksho (right) from Gandhara, Pakistan. The style is influenced by Greco-Buddhist art and Ardoksho is shown holding a cornucopia (upper right), a feature apparently adopted from the Greek goddess Tyche.

Pakistani deities refers to the many gods and goddesses worshipped across various religious traditions that originated within the region of Pakistan or the Greater Indus region. This includes the diverse pantheon of deities from ancient civilizations, indigenous faiths, and modern religions that have influenced the spiritual and cultural life of the region. The land of Pakistan is historically significant as the birthplace of several major religious traditions. The Vedic religion, which laid the foundation for Hinduism, originated in the region, and its deities have had a lasting impact on the spiritual landscape.[1][2] Similarly, the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's earliest urban cultures, featured proto-deities as evidenced by archaeological discoveries.[3]

The ancient regions of Gandhara and Oddiyana in northern Pakistan, played a important role in the development and spread of Mahayana Buddhism to Central and East Asia.[4] This period saw the emergence of the first human depictions of Buddha and a distinctive Buddhist pantheon of deities.[5] The Vajrayana branch of Buddhism also has roots in this region, with Padmasambhava, a key figure in Vajrayana, believed to have originated from the Oddiyana region of ancient Pakistan.[6] The land of Pakistan also holds a revered place in Zoroastrianism, regarded as part of the "Good Lands" (created by Ahura Mazda himself) in Zoroastrian cosmology.[7]

The Hellenic period (300 BC–10 CE) introduced Greek influence to Pakistan, creating a unique blend of Hellenistic and local traditions and resulting in syncretic deities.[8] This fusion highlights the region's historical role as a crossroads of cultures. In the early modern period, Sikhism, a monotheistic religion emerged in the Punjab region of Pakistan, introducing a distinct pantheon of revered figures.[9] The Pagan Kalash community, residing in the northern areas of Pakistan, maintains its own unique set of deities and spiritual practices.[10]

The following list provides an overview of the major deities from various different religious traditions that originated in Pakistan, including syncretic deities.

Proto-Deities of the Indus Civilization

Harappan Proto-Deities
 
This seal from Mohenjo-Daro shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.
 
Indus Valley Civilization seal, with man fighting two tigers (2500-1500 BCE).[11][12]
 
Female figure, possibly a fertility goddess from the Indus Valley, Harappan Phase, c. 2500-1900 BC.
 
Man with horns, hooves and tail, fighting a beast. He has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu.[13][14][15] Indus Valley civilization seal.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) of Ancient Pakistan provides intriguing insights into early religious beliefs through its archaeological findings. While direct evidence of specific deities is sparse, several key elements suggest the presence of proto-deities and early spiritual concepts.[16]

1. Mother Goddess Figurines: Terracotta figurines, often termed "Mother Goddesses," are widespread in Indus Valley archaeological sites. Historians have suggested that these figurines, characterized by pronounced female features, likely emphasize fertility and maternal aspects. Their prevalence suggests that fertility and agricultural prosperity were central to the spiritual life of the Indus Valley people.[17]

2. Master of Animals: A notable artifact is a seal depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals, which has been interpreted in various ways. While some suggest connections to later deities, this figure might represent early forms of spiritual or symbolic representations linked to nature or animalistic qualities.[18] The imagery of the figure surrounded by animals suggests a connection to natural forces or an early form of deity worship linked to animal symbolism.[19]

3. Animal Deification: Animals frequently appear in Indus Valley seals and sculptures, indicating a form of animal deification or worship. The humped bull, for example, is a prominent symbol, potentially representing strength, fertility, or agricultural prosperity. Other animals depicted include elephants, the Indus unicorn and rhinoceroses, suggesting that these creatures held symbolic or spiritual significance. The consistent representation of animals in religious contexts points to a belief system where animals were imbued with sacred or spiritual qualities.[16]

Hellenic period

Kushan deities

The Kushan religious pantheon is very diverse, as shown by their coins made of gold, silver, and copper. These coins feature more than thirty different gods from Iranian,[note 1] Greek, and South Asian traditions.[20] Kushan coins show Kushan kings, Buddha, and gods from Indo-Aryan and Iranian beliefs. Early coins also include Greek gods with Greek names. Here is a list of the Kushan deities:[21][22]

The Iranian entities depicted on coinage include:

  • Ardoxsho (Αρδοχþο): Ashi Vanghuhi  
  • Ashaeixsho (Aþαειχþo, "Best righteousness"): Asha Vahishta  
  • Athsho (Αθþο, "The Royal fire"): Atar[21]  
  • Pharro (Φαρρο, "Royal splendour"): Khwarenah  
  • Lrooaspa (Λροοασπο): Drvaspa  
  • Manaobago (Μαναοβαγο): Vohu Manah[23]  
  • Mao (Μαο, the Lunar deity): Mah  
  • Mithro and variants (Μιθρο, Μιιρο, Μιορο, Μιυρο): Mithra  
  • Mozdooano (Μοζδοοανο, "Mazda the victorious?"): Mazda *vana[21][24]  
  • Nana (Νανα, Ναναια, Ναναϸαο): variations of pan-Asiatic Nana, Sogdian Nny, Anahita[21]  
  • Oado (Οαδο): Vata  
  • Oaxsho (Oαxþo): "Oxus"
  • Ooromozdo (Οορομοζδο): Ahura Mazda  
  • Ořlagno (Οραλαγνο): Verethragna, the Iranian god of war  
  • Rishti (Ριϸτι, "Uprightness"): Arshtat[21]  
  • Shaoreoro (Ϸαορηορο, "Best royal power", Archetypal ruler): Khshathra Vairya[21]  
  • Tiero (Τιερο): Tir

Representation of entities from Greek mythology and Hellenistic syncretism are:

 
Hercules and the Nemean lion wrestling, from Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st century.
  • Zaoou (Ζαοου):[25] Zeus  
  • Ēlios (Ηλιος): Helios  
  • Ēphaēstos (Ηφαηστος): Hephaistos
  • Oa nēndo (Οα νηνδο): Nike  
  • Salēnē (Ϲαληνη):[26][27][28][29] Selene  
  • Anēmos (Ανημος): Anemos  
  • Ērakilo (Ηρακιλο): Heracles  
  • Sarapo (Ϲαραπο): the Greco-Egyptian god Sarapis  

The South asian entities represented on coinage include:[30]

  • Deities on Kushan coinage and seals

  • Mahasena on a coin of Huvishka

  • Four-faced Oesho

  • Rishti or Riom[36][37]

  • Manaobago

  • Pharro

  • Ardochsho

  • Oesho

  • Oesho with bull

  • Skanda and Visakha

  • Carnelian seal representing the "ΑΔϷΟ" (adsho Atar).

  • Coin of Kanishka I, with a depiction of the Buddha and legend "Boddo" in Greek script

  • Herakles.

  • Buddha

  • Coin of Vima Kadphises. Deity Oesho on the reverse.[32][33][38][39]

Related pages

Notes

  1. ↑ Iranian here means Bactrian, Arachosian, etc,. Iranian here does not mean "Persian", which is western Iranian.

References

  1. ↑ Heesterman, Jan (2005). "Vedism and Brahmanism". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 14 (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. pp. 9552–9553. ISBN 0-02-865733-0.
  2. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume V: The End of the Harappan Civilization, and the Aftermath. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4997-0982-7.
  3. ↑ Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5.
  4. ↑ Allon, Mark; Salomon, Richard (2010). "New Evidence for Mahayana in Early Gandhāra". The Eastern Buddhist. 41 (1): 1–22. ISSN 0012-8708.
  5. ↑ Raza, M. Hanif (1995). Glorious Gandhara: Buddha's Story in Stone. Colorpix.
  6. ↑ "Padmasambhava | Tibetan Buddhism, Guru Rinpoche, 8th Century | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-07-30.
  7. ↑ Varandyan, Emmanuel P. (1961). "Milton's Paradise Lost and Zoroaster's Zenda Vesta". Comparative Literature. 13 (3): 208–220. doi:10.2307/1768998. ISSN 0010-4124.
  8. ↑ Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Harmatta, János (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-1408-0.
  9. ↑ Shāh, Ṣafdar ʻAlī (2012). The Sikh Heritage of Pakistan. Constellation Plus. ISBN 978-969-9532-01-6.
  10. ↑ Masson, Charles (1944-09-07). Kalash Siaposh Kafirs History and Customs. Ishi Press International. ISBN 978-4-87187-377-2.
  11. ↑ Possehl 2002, p. 146.
  12. ↑ Littleton, C. Scott (2005). Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology. Marshall Cavendish. p. 732. ISBN 9780761475651.
  13. ↑ Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. p. 389. ISBN 9788120611795.
  14. ↑ Singh. The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination. Pearson Education India. p. 35. ISBN 9788131717530.
  15. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Marshall Sir John (1931). Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization Vol-i (1931). pp. 48–78.
  16. ↑ Ratnagar, Shereen (2016). "A critical view of Marshall's Mother Goddess at Mohenjo-Daro". Studies in People's History. 3 (2): 113–127. doi:10.1177/2348448916665714. ISSN 2348-4489.
  17. ↑ Clark, Sharri R.; Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2017-06-06). "South Asia—Indus Civilization". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675616.013.024.
  18. ↑ Counts, Derek B.; Arnold, Bettina (2010). The Master of Animals in Old World Iconography. Archaeolingua. ISBN 978-963-9911-14-7.
  19. ↑ Liu 2010, p. 47.
  20. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Harmatta 1999, pp. 327–328
  21. ↑ Boyce, Mary (2001). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-415-23902-8.
  22. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 324.
  23. ↑ Jongeward, David; Cribb, Joe (2014). Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins A Catalogue of Coins From the American Numismatic Society (PDF). New York: THE AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIETY. p. Front page illustration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  24. ↑ "Kujula Kadphises coin". The British Museum.
  25. ↑ Dani, A. H.; Asimov, M. S.; Litvinsky, B. A.; Zhang, Guang-da; Samghabadi, R. Shabani; Bosworth, C. E. (1 January 1994). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. UNESCO. p. 321. ISBN 978-92-3-102846-5.
  26. ↑ The Cambridge Shorter History of India. CUP Archive. p. 77.
  27. ↑ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 199. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
  28. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 377. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  29. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Harmatta 1999, p. 326. "Also omitted is the ancient Iranian war god Orlagno, whose place and function are occupied by a group of Indian war gods, Skando (Old Indian Skanda), Komaro (Old Indian Kumara), Maaseno (Old Indian Mahāsena), Bizago (Old Indian Viśākha), and even Ommo (Old Indian Umā), the consort of Siva. Their use as reverse types of Huvishka I is clear evidence for the new trends in religious policy of the Kushan king, which was possibly influenced by enlisting Indian warriors into the Kushan army during the campaign against Pataliputra."
  30. ↑ Sivaramamurti 1976, p. 56-59.
  31. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Loeschner, Hans (July 2012). "The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 227: 11.
  32. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Bopearachchi 2007, pp. 41–53.
  33. ↑ Sims-Williams, Nicolas. "Bactrian Language". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 3. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  34. ↑ Bopearachchi 2003. Cites H. Humbach, 1975, p.402-408. K.Tanabe, 1997, p.277, M.Carter, 1995, p.152. J.Cribb, 1997, p.40.
  35. ↑ Fleet, J.F. (1908). "The Introduction of the Greek Uncial and Cursive Characters into India". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1908: 179, note 1. JSTOR 25210545. The reading of the name of the deity on this coin is very much uncertain and disputed (Riom, Riddhi, Rishthi, Rise....)
  36. ↑ Shrava, Satya (1985). The Kushāṇa Numismatics. Pranava Prakashan. p. 29. The name Riom as read by Gardner, was read by Cunningham as Ride, who equated it with Riddhi, the Indian goddess of fortune. F.W. Thomas has read the name as Rhea
  37. ↑ Perkins, J. (2007). Three-headed Śiva on the Reverse of Vima Kadphises's Copper Coinage. South Asian Studies, 23(1), 31–37
  38. ↑ Fitzwilliam Museum (1992). Errington, Elizabeth (ed.). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ancient India and Iran Trust. p. 87. ISBN 9780951839911.
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